Carbon Removal Technologies: Maturity, Cost, and Applicability Perspective for Turkey
- Goldstein Carbon
- Feb 20
- 5 min read
Carbon removal methods are generally divided into four main categories based on their approaches and the technological levels used: nature-based methods, ocean-based methods, technological methods, and hybrid methods. The most commonly used of these methods are:
Biochar (Hybrid): A charcoal-like substance obtained by processing biomass at high temperatures in a low-oxygen environment (pyrolysis), capable of retaining carbon in the soil for hundreds of years. In addition to providing permanent carbon storage, biochar applications offer significant co-benefits such as increasing soil fertility, improving water retention capacity, and reducing the need for agricultural inputs. With costs around $80–$200 per ton, it stands out today as one of the most cost-effective and mature carbon removal technologies.
Biomass Carbon Removal and Storage (BiCRS) (Hybrid): Aims to capture carbon long-term and permanently using agricultural waste and biomass byproducts through the production of biochar, bio-oil, or by storing biomass in controlled landfills. It enables the effective utilization of regional biomass resources.
Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) (Hybrid): Involves growing biomass, using it for energy production, and capturing and storing the CO₂ emitted at the end of the process. This approach, which can theoretically achieve net-negative emissions, can also enable the production of carbon-negative fuels like hydrogen.
Direct Air Capture (DAC) (Tech-Based): Directly separates CO₂ from ambient air through chemical or physical processes and stores it in underground geological formations or long-lasting products like concrete. Although it offers high scalability and permanence, current costs are around $100–$600 per ton; credit prices in voluntary carbon markets can reach up to $225–$1,000. These costs are expected to decrease as the technology matures and scales up.
Soil Carbon Sequestration (Nature-Based): Aims to increase the carbon storage capacity of the soil through no-till farming and other regenerative practices. While providing carbon removal, it offers critical co-benefits that support agricultural productivity and soil health.
Enhanced Rock Weathering (ERW) (Nature-Based): Accelerates natural weathering processes by finely grinding and applying silicate rocks, such as basalt, to land; it ensures atmospheric CO₂ is bound in mineral form while also improving soil quality.
Afforestation and Reforestation (Nature-Based): Involves creating new forest areas or rehabilitating existing ones. While trees absorb CO₂ during their growth and this method offers large-scale potential for carbon removal, it is not considered a sufficient solution on its own due to permanence, land use, and climate risks.
Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement (Ocean-Based): Aims to increase the CO₂ absorption capacity of oceans by carefully adding alkaline materials, like lime, to the marine environment.
Ocean Fertilization and Artificial Upwelling (Ocean-Based): Relies on the controlled addition of nutrients to increase marine productivity and promote carbon sequestration.
Marine Anoxic Carbon Storage (MACS) (Ocean-Based): Aims to provide carbon storage for over 200 years, or potentially permanently, by depositing lignin-rich biomass into deep, oxygen-depleted marine basins.
Technology Maturity Level Comparison and Applicability
Biochar can be considered the most mature solution among carbon removal technologies because it has both a strong scientific foundation and proven commercial-scale applicability. By transforming biomass into a carbon-rich and chemically stable structure through pyrolysis, the carbon drawn from the atmosphere can be safely stored in the soil for hundreds or even thousands of years. This high level of permanence limits the risk of carbon reversal while strengthening the environmental integrity of biochar projects. Additionally, because the inputs, conversion rates, and final carbon content used in biochar production processes can be clearly measured, Measurement, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) systems have matured, creating a high-trust environment for investors and regulatory bodies. In terms of Technology Readiness Level (TRL), biochar is a low-technical-risk technology that has been used on an industrial scale for a long time and can be integrated with different sectors. Furthermore, generating multiple benefits—such as increased soil fertility, improved water retention, and converting waste biomass into economic value—enhances the local acceptance and sustainability of projects. When all these factors are considered together, biochar stands out today as an applicable, scalable, and market-adopted carbon removal solution compared to other CDR approaches that are still in early stages or carry high uncertainty.
Nature-based methods like afforestation and reforestation, soil carbon sequestration, and enhanced rock weathering are among the most widely implemented carbon removal solutions today due to their relatively low costs and the co-benefits they offer in terms of ecosystem services. However, when evaluated specifically for Turkey, while afforestation and reforestation projects are viable due to suitable land availability, they must be carefully managed regarding land use competition, fire risk, and the long-term permanence of carbon sequestration. Furthermore, afforestation and reforestation efforts in Turkey do not comply with international carbon standards because existing legal regulations already mandate the afforestation of these areas.
Soil carbon sequestration offers high applicability potential, especially in regional and agriculture-focused projects, considering Turkey's vast agricultural lands and increasing regenerative farming practices. Enhanced rock weathering, on the other hand, is technically possible due to Turkey's geological diversity in basalt and silicate rocks but requires detailed feasibility studies regarding logistics, measurement-verification, and scaling. Nevertheless, the permanence of carbon sequestration in these nature-based methods is limited and risky due to land-use changes, fires, climate stresses, and measurement uncertainties. The need for vast land and long implementation periods makes it difficult for these solutions to be sufficient on their own, both in Turkey and globally.
Hybrid methods combine nature-based processes with technological interventions to offer higher permanence and measurability. Solutions like Biochar and BiCRS are currently among the most competitive carbon removal options in terms of cost-effectiveness, thanks to their potential to keep biomass-derived carbon in the soil or controlled storage areas for hundreds of years. The applicability and scalability of such hybrid carbon removal solutions are particularly high in Turkey, which has a rich resource base of agricultural and industrial biowaste. BECCS, while theoretically offering a strong solution with its capacity to provide both energy production and negative emissions, is progressing on a more limited scale in practice due to competition for land, water, and biomass, along with high capital requirements. In this context, hybrid solutions produce more rational and applicable results in regional-scale projects where agricultural and industrial side streams can be utilized in countries with high biomass potential like Turkey.
Direct Air Capture (DAC), a leading technology-based method, is one of the approaches that provides the highest permanence and measurement accuracy for carbon removal. Because CO₂ is drawn directly from the atmosphere and stored in geological formations, the climate impact is clear and verifiable. However, today's high energy requirements and costs are the biggest obstacles to the widespread adoption of DAC. Despite this, with scaling, technological learning curves, and policy support in the long run, DAC is expected to play a central role in net-negative emission targets.
Ocean-based methods, while theoretically having massive scale carbon removal potential, stand out as the most controversial category due to scientific uncertainties and environmental risks. Although approaches like ocean alkalinity enhancement, fertilization, and MACS can store carbon for long periods or potentially permanently, impacts on marine ecosystems, lack of governance, and international regulatory gaps limit the commercial-scale application of these solutions. Therefore, ocean-based methods are currently evaluated in the research and pilot application phases rather than marketization in the short term; they are positioned as high-potential but high-uncertainty options in long-term climate strategies.
You can consult our team to get more information about carbon removal project opportunities and applicable scenarios in Turkey.
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